A case study of a BBS student

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Water is the most importance liquid for the survival of all the living beings. Regarding the water resources, Nepal is the second richest country. Even shortage of drinking water and pollution of water bodies are the growing problems in urban centers in Nepal. Kathmandu, the capital city of the nation is severely affected by these problems where water is supplied only half of the actual demand and the major river are turning into open drain. Similarly, groundwater is depleting about 2.5 meters every year due to the over extractions. There is no sign of increase in water supply within a decade and nation has still not a concrete plan to clean rivers. In this circumstance, local level actions must be initiated to solve this crisis where people need to orient on simple techniques for sustainable management of water. Such  techniques are rainwater harvesting, wastewater recycling, and adoption of ecological sanitation system and several others. These techniques can be implemented at a single household to community levels. In the last two years these initiatives have already been adopted by couples of individuals and institutes.

1.1.1 Introduction of the Project :

Problems associated with the lack of clean drinking water and polluted water bodies are common to many cities in developing countries. With rapid urbanization in the developing world and increasing pressure in city governments who often lack adequate financial as well as human resources, these problems are in an increasing trend.

The story of Kathmandu valley's water supply and sanitation is similar to many cities in the developing world where only half of the total water demand is supplied. Many people especially in the peri-urban communities are relying in traditional water sources like dug wells and stone spouts which are not safe drinking. According to the statistics, Kathmandu valley needs 189 crore liters water per day. But only 49% of the required water is supplied in the dry season and about 70% is supplied in the wet/rainy season. Hence, news regarding scarcity of water has been main issue in the Kathmandu valley.

Under these circumstances , it is urgent that the citizens of Kathmandu adopt measures to optimize the use of current water supply system and conserve water to the extent possible and adopt to reduce pollution of the water sources.

1.2 Water and sources of Water :

Water, common name applied to the liquid state of the hydrogen-oxygen compound H₂O. The ancient philosophers regarded water as a basic element typifying all liquid substances. Scientists did not discard that view until the latter half of the 18^th century. In 1781 the British chemist Henry Cavendish synthesized water by detonating a mixture of hydrogen and air. However, the results of his experiments were not clearly interpreted until two years later, when the French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier proved that water was not an element but a compound of oxygen and hydrogen. In a scientific paper presented in 1804, the French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and the German naturalist Alexander Von Humboldt demonstrated jointly that water consisted of two volumes of hydrogen to one of oxygen, as expressed by the present day formula H₂O.

Pure water is an odorless, tasteless liquid. It has a bluish tint, which may be detected, however, only in layers of considerable depth. Under standard atmospheric pressure (760 mm of mercury, or 760 torr); the freezing point of water is 0^oC (32^oF) and its boiling point is 100^oC(212⁰F). Water attains its maximum density at a temperature of 40C(39^oF) expands upon freezing. Like most other liquids, water can exist in a super cooled state; that is, it may remain a liquid although its temperature is below its freezing point. Water can easily be cooled to about -25^oC (-13^oF) without freezing, either under laboratory conditions or in the atmosphere itself. Super cooled water will freeze if it is disturbed, if the temperature is lowered further, or if an ice crystal or other particle is added to it. Its physical properties are used as standards to define the calorie and specific and latent heat (see Heat) and in the metric system for the original definition of the unit of mass, the gram.

Different sources of water are as follows :

i.                    Rivers and lakes

ii.                  Stone Spouts

iii.                Dug wells

iv.               Taps of Water Supply Corporation

1.3 Daily Water Requirements :

Water is essence for the survival of all the living beings. Water is needed for daily activities such as drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, clothes and utensils, cleaning and sanitation purposes etc. according to the statistics, Kathmandu valley needs 189 crore liters water per day. But only 49% of the required water is supplied in the dry season and about 70% is supplied in the wet/rainy season. Water needed for daily consumption per person is as follows.

Water requirements per person

Liter per person per day	Use	Required quality
3	Drinking	High
10	Cleaning Utensils	High
57	Bathing	High
20	Washing Clothes	Medium
7	Cleaning	Low
3	For use in gardens	Low
45	For use in toilets	Low
145	Total

Table 1.1

1.4 Objectives of the Study :

·        To know the demand and supply problem of water in the Kathmandu Valley.

·        To suggest different water management techniques for practices in Kathmandu Valley.

·        To know the measures for optimum use of water resources.

1.5 Limitation of the study :

This study was limited to the Kathmandu valley only. Thus, the findings of the study do not include the water resources problems and management throughout the country. The study is highly based on secondary data rather than the personal observation of the field. Since detailed study can't be made due to the time as well as the cost constraints.

1.6 Research Methodology:

Research Methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problems. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various steps that we generally adopted by a researcher, studying his research problem among with the logic behind them. Specially in this study it is used case study and small scale survey by different NGOs.

1.7 Research Design

The research design followed is basically the problems prevailing in the valley due to the scarcity of water and water management technology for the solution of the existing problems. Analytical as well as descriptive approaches are used to evaluate the financial performance of these banks. Analysis is basically on the basis of secondary data.

1.8 Population and Samples

All the cities and rural areas of the country is the population. But due to time frame, unavailability of the data and on the basis of researcher's judgment, the study will cover only major city of the country as a sample of all the urban and rural areas affected by the scarcity of water viz. Kathmandu valley.

1.9 Method of Data Collection

The required data has been collected from various primary and secondary data. The data are collected mainly from secondary data rather than the primary data. The data are collected mainly from the published sources working in the field of public health, newspaper, magazines, etc. Besides, the data are also collected from the frequent visit to the various organizations and consulting with the concerned personnel in the various organizations.

Primary Data Collection Method

The essential for the study was collected through different method of primary sources like :

Ø NGO FORUM

Ø Through observation

Ø Literature survey was made before preparing this study.

Secondary Data Collection Method :

Secondary data are often in the form of published data such as records, reports, pamphlets, statistic gather, directories, trade, publications, computer data banks websites, data services etc. In this study, the essential data are collected through:

Ø Nepal water supply corporation annual report

Ø www.sodis.ch

Ø www.enpho.org

Ø Different magazines and newspaper

 

CHAPTER – 2

ANALYSIS OF THE STUDY

2.1 Study Area :

This study was conducted on the Kathmandu valley which is severely affected by the shortage of drinking water and pollution of water bodies.

2.2 Effects of Scarcity of Water

2.2(I) Over dependence on groundwater

The demand per sy for the water in Kathmandu valley is 189 crore liters. Only 49% of the total demand is supplied in dry season and about 70% supplied in wet/rainy season. Hence, due to the inadequate supply, most people depend on ground under for consumption due to the presence of iron, ammonia, nitrate, arsenic, manganese etc. The over dependence on graound water cause depletion on ground water by about 2.5mtrs every year due to over extraction. Therefore, there is a high probability of land subsidence and other adverse environmental impact like release of harmful chemicals and desertification if the excessive extractions of ground water continue.

Glimpse of Stone Spouts in Cities of Kathmandu Valley

City	Total no’s	Operation with		Not working at all	Do not exist
		Natural Spring	City water Supply
Bhaktapur	83	31	25	24	3
Madhyamik Thimi	58	43	6	9
Kirtipur	11	8			3
Lalitpur	53	42		4	7
Kathmandu	172	105	2	34	31
Total	377	229	33	71	44

Table 1.2

Note : 84 spouts were tested, 100% of samples have microbial contamination and 57% have nitrate content more than WHO guidelines. (Source : NGO Forum field survey)

2.2(II) Water borne diseases :

About 91/1000 of the children under the age of 5 die due to the water borne diseases in Nepal. Lack of clean drinking water and proper sanitation causes several water borne diseases such as typhoid, jaundice, dysentery, cholera, etc. according to WHO, about 80% of all sickness and diseases in the word is caused by inadequate sanitation, polluted water or unavailability of water?

Common diseases associated with water and sanitation

Group	Disease	Route leaving host	Route of inflection
Water borne diseases	Cholera	Faeces	Oral
	Typhoid	Faeces/urine	Oral
	Infection hepatitis	Faeces	Oral
	Amoebiasis	Faeces	Oral
	Giardiasis	Faeces	Oral
Diseases associated with poor hygiene	Bacillary dysentery	Faeces	Oral
	Enteroviral diarrhea	Faeces	Oral
	Amoebiasis	Faeces	Oral
	Paratyphoid	Faeces	Oral
Diseases related to inadequate sanitation	Ascariasis	Faeces	Oral
	Hookworm	Faeces	Oral

Table 1.3

Morbidity and morality rates of some water related diseases in the developing world.

Diseases	Episodes per year (in 000’s)	Deaths per year
Diarrhea disease	1500000	4000
Cholera	584	11
Typhoid	500	25
Amoebiasis	48000	110
Shisosomiasis	200000	800

#Children <5 years of age (excluding China)

            Table1.4

Water borne infection cycle

Infected person/animal

Susceptible person                                    Pathogens in excreta

Consumption of untreated water                     Contaminated water source

2.2(III) Increased level of pollution in rivers:

Rivers are much polluted in Kathmandu valley. The main reasons of pollution are poor sewerage system, unhygienic wastage disposal thrown in the rivers, lack of waste water management before direct linking to the river etc.

#Quality of Bagmati River

One of the measure for water pollution is chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). Generally, COD above 30 mg in river water is considered as polluted river. Scarcity of water and direct linkage of sewerage system the lakes and rivers increases the COD to the maximum. According to the study made by ENPHO, the water in Sundarijal is still clear (not polluted) whereas same Bagmati river in Pashupati is little polluted (i.e. COD) below 30 mg). but it is very much polluted in Tilganga, Minbhawan and is some what clear when it reaches to Chovar. But it is still 10 times than 30 mg.

	Sundarijal	Pashupati	Tilganga	Minbhawan	Sundarighat	Chovar
Jan.	3.82	12.72	159	258.6	222.6	265
Feb.	2.74	25.54	415	506.2	437.8	401.3
Mar.	5	27.5	202	270	260	266
Apr.	5	26.5	545	600	325	315

(Before rainy season 2007 A.D)

Table1.5

Fig.no.1.1

2.1 Different Water Management Techniques :

Shortage of drinking water has been the main issue of public concern today. So, proper utilization of the water resources is important. It is said that –every problem has a solution. Thus, the growing problems of scarcity of drinking water and pollution of water bodies also must has a solution and with the combined effort of all we have to make it a temporary problem. The following water management techniques can be applied as a solution to the above stated problems.

2.3(A) Rainwater Harvesting :

Rainwater harvesting refer to the collection of rainwater for storage and groundwater recharging. Rainwater harvesting can be a complementary source used to meet domestic water needs. Water harvesting has essentially meant valuing the raindrop. It has meant capturing rain where it falls or capturing the runoff in your village or in your town.

Rainwater can be a major source of drinking water in Kathmandu valley since it has more than 1600 mm of annual rainfall. This resource is wisely used in Eco home. It has m³/year of rainwater harvesting potential with 90.5m² of roof area. Rainwater is collected into 8000 liters underground thank and excess rainwater especially during rainy season is diverted into dug well which stores about 10000 liters of water and also facilitates to recharge groundwater. A first flush diversion device has been built to divert the dirt and other particulars from the roof and from the atmosphere. In this, rainwater first goes to a tank where it is collected and the clean water is then sent to the underground tank. Eco home has adequate rain water for seven months and is then sent to the underground tank. Eco home has adequate rain water for seven months and for the remaining five months, it abstracts water from the dug well. Recharging the groundwater has improved water quality in the dug well with reduced nitrate level.

Precipitation pattern of Kathmandu and water collection potential

Average monthly precipitation rate (mm)	Average monthly precipitation rate (mm)	Collection of water in 90.4 m2 cathment area	Water deman/family (m3/month)	Water surplus and deficit (m3/month)
17.5	0.0175	1.3	5.4	-4.1
17.5	0.0175	1.3	5.4	-4.1
37.5	0.0375	2.7	5.4	-2.7
37.5	0.0375	2.7	5.4	-2.7
137.5	0.1375	9.9	5.4	4.5
225	0.225	16.3	5.4	10.9
450	0.45	32.5	5.4	27.1
350	0.35	25.3	5.4	19.9
27.5	0.275	19.9	5.4	14.5
37.5	0.375	2.7	5.4	-2.7
17.5	0.0175	1.3	5.4	-4.1
7.5	0.0075	0.5	5.4	-4.9
1610	1.61	116.4	64.8	51.6

            Table 1.6

#Who can harvest rainwater ?

·        Domestic homes

·        Business

·        Government Institutes

# Benefits of rainwater harvesting

There are direct and indirect benefits for the consumer of harvesting rainwater. The direct benefits are rainwater harvesting will provide a supplement sources of water to wash clothes, flush toilets and if treated, potable water. The Kathmandu valley has a severe water crisis. The water levels we enjoy now will probably be much lower in the future. Rain water harvesting unit, we can have access to free water. We could save 40% or our water bill. We can improve and protect the environment and recharge the groundwater supply. So rainwater harvesting is the social responsibility of every home owner.

Groundwater is being extracted at twice the sustainable rate and causing the drop of groundwater levels at a rate of 2.5 meters per year. This causes water wells to fail and forcing more people to depend on the current system. Depleted groundwater levels can lead to subsidence, the sinking of soil causing property damage. A reduced level of ground water can lead to arsenic contamination which will force more people onto the current system making less water available for the home.

# Essential of rainwater harvesting :

A single rain water harvesting unit can be attached to one home and the storage tank can be connected by multiple units. A unit collects the rain water for domestic use or redirection to a recharge pit. Whether the unit is large or small is made up of seven basic components

1.     Catchments Area/Roof or the surface upon which the rain falls.

2.     Leaves and debris filtering unit.

3.     Gutters and downspouts the transport channels from the catchments surface storage.

4.     First rain flushing unit collect dusts and debris.

5.     Storage tanks or Cisterns where collected rain water is stored.

6.     Water treatment such as chlorination and filter equipments.

7.     Conveying the delivery system for the treated rainwater either by gravity or pump.

Cost of rainwater harvesting from different sizes of rooftop in Kathmandu Valley

Months	Precipatation (meter)	Roof area 25 sq m(liter)	Rof area 50 sq m (liter)	Roof area 100 sq m(liter)	Roof area 150 sq m (liter)	Roof area 200 sq m(liter)
January	0.0175	350	700	1400	2100	2800
February	0.0175	350	700	1400	2100	2800
March	0.0375	750	1500	3000	4500	6000
April	0.0375	750	1500	3000	4500	6000
May	0.0375	2750	5500	11000	16500	22000
June	0.225	4500	9000	18000	27000	36000
July	0.45	9000	18000	36000	54000	72000
August	0.35	7000	14000	28000	42000	56000
September	0.275	5500	11000	22000	33000	44000
October	0.037	750	1500	3000	4500	6000
November	0.0175	350	700	1400	2100	2800
December	0.0075	150	300	600	900	1200
Total	1.61	32200	64400	12800	193200	257600

Table 1.7

#How does rain water pollute the river and how to prevent ?

When rain water hits an impermeable surface, water cannot soak into the ground. Cement ceilings paved streets and tin roofs are example of impermeable surfaces. When water collects in your rain gutters it is transferred to the street drain very quickly. Imagine the amount of water from all of the homes in the valley and all the water that is discharged directly into drains. During the heavy monsoon, a huge amount of water is flushed directly into the rivers of the valley. The velocity of the water being discharged into the river undercuts and scours the banks of the river causing erosion, river bank failure and loss of land. This will increase the sediment load of the river and can  cause flooding in low lying areas. By building a rainwater harvesting system either with a collection tank or recharge pit, this will decrease the volume of rainwater in sewer drains reducing the damage to the rivers. Many residents of the Kathmandu connect their sewerage lines directly to manholes (storm sewers) and the rainwater carries this sewerage straight out to the river. The foul smells of the river is due to an estimated 90% of sewerage generated in the Kathmandu valley being flushed into the rivers of the valley.

2.3(B) SODIS :

SODIS(Solar water disinfection) is  a simple water treatment method relying in solar UV-A radiation and temperature to inactive pathogens that cause diarrhea. SODIS is gaining worldwide significance in areas where people do not have access to safe drinking water.

Water to be treated is filled into used transparent PET (polyethylene  terephthalate) bottles and exposed tofu; sunlight for six hours.

Two synergistic mechanisms are involved in the treatment of water by sunlight. UV-A radiation (wavelength 320-40mm) and elevated water temperature. It is more efficient in water containing high levels of oxygen. Saturation of the water with oxygen can be achieved by filling the bottles to three quarters and shake them for about 20 seconds before they are filled completely.

SODIS users have increased after watching SODIS video documentary in Nepal Television. People have showed interest in SODIS technology and requested for more information from different SODIS promotional organization.

#Methods of SODIS :

Ø Remove the label of the plastic PET bottles of 1-2 liters and clean inner as well as outer part.

Ø After cleaning the bottle fill 2/3 water in bottle.

Ø After that put the cap properly and shake the bottle 20 times. It is done in order to increase the level of oxygen in water which helps to kill the microorganisms. In addition to this, as the amount of oxygen increases in water, water becomes tasty.

Ø Then fill the bottle full and put the cap

Ø Finally expose the bottles in an inclined position for about 7 hours in the sunny day and 2 days in the cloudy days.

Ø Now water is free of microorganisms and safe for drinking.

# Things to be considered while applying SODIS method :

Ø SODIS is effective only on clean water. If the water is dusty then it is to be distilled by using piece of clean cloth to SODIS.

Ø In the cloudy days, earth receives less ultraviolet rays. So, bottles are to be exposed for 2 days.

Ø The bottle used for SODIS should not be scratched.

Ø The bottles are to be placed in the dark place.

Ø SODIS does not remove the chemicals present in the water.

Ø Bottle should be cleaned before SODIS.

Ø Water can be used for 1 week after doing SODIS.

Ø Algal growth (green layers) occurs in the bottle if the bottles are placed in the sunlight after doing SODIS.

Ø Water does not contaminate by the transfer of plasticizers from PET bottles.

# Most of the people began to use this water treatment technology due to this effectiveness and low cost to be incurred after getting knowledge about this.

#Before implementation of SODIS :

                                               

After implementation of SODIS

                                    Fig 1.2

# SODIS awareness generation approaches :

Following methods were adopted by ENPHO to promote SODIS technology in the communities.

Ø Orientation to key persons :

Initially the local leaders and key person from the communities were invited for the meeting. During the meeting, knowledge on SODIS application were shared and discussed. Since these people have an influencing role in the community they were trained first in the later stages of SODIS promotion in the community.

Ø Training to community based groups :

Various communities based groups such as women saving and credit group, local youth group, children group, total sudhar samiti and mother groups were trained about SODIS technology. The trainings were provided by the promoters and in the cases where promoters could not convince or need additional support, ENPHO intervened and provided training in those communities.

Ø Training to household in groups :

A member from each household were invited and provided training in groups of 15-20 people. A series of such training were conducted in communities with large number of households. Mostly female members of the family were invited in the training programmed.

Ø Building confidence through water testing :

During the promotional period, promoters carried out test of raw and treated water (after SODIS) using the simple kit known as the presence/absence (PA) vial. The vial showed the presence or absence of H2S producing bacteria in water, which is an indicator of faucal contamination. This is a very simple  technique that can be used by any individual. In this method the vial containing media for H2S producing bacteria is filled to about 20ml of water and kept at room temperature for 48 hours. If water contains such bacteria the water in the vial turns black. This approach was used to see the effect of SODIS by the users themselves. Similarly, water was tested the pre monsoon and monsoon season in all the communities using Del Agua Kit. The test revealed that the number of bacteria was reduced during the monsoon season and the result was then disseminated.

Ø School programs :

To make use of children to parents approach, ENPHO conducted school programs to disseminate knowledge on SODIS to teacher and students. Communities based schools in and around the project area were selected for SODIS promotion so that students could relay this message to their parents at home. In addition to this, school programs were conducted to disseminate the knowledge to a wider audience. So far ENPHO has conducted programs in more than 20 schools in Kathmandu valley and 6 schools in Rupandehi district.

# Reduction of water borne diseases :

The present study made by ENPHO revealed that each community has a remarkable reduction of diarrheal disease over a one year period. The main indicators were children under 5 years age which showed 69.5% reduction in diarrheal diseases in the program area. The findings suggests that SODIS can be one of the best option for household drinking water treatment to address water borne diseases in the communities. Thus, the promotion and implementation of SODIS in the urban poor communities sound feasible, effective and socially acceptable if the incorporated with proper monitoring and health impact assessment and by mobilizing the frontline public health organizations. Similarly, there was noticeable reduction of other water borne diseases like typhoid and jaundice.

Water Borne Diseases	Diseases Occurrence (Kathmandu)
	Before	After	Reduction (%)
Diarrhea	340	122	64.1
Typhoid	71	17	76.1
Jaundice	13	2	84.6

Percentage reduction of water borne diseases before and after SODIS

            Fig. 1.3

2.3(C) Ecological Sanitation:

Ecological Sanitation (ECOSAN) is an ecosystem approach to excreta disposal. ECOSAN recognize :

Ø Human excreta as a resource, not a waste

Ø Water is a precious resources that should not be used to transport the excreta

Ø Excreta should be managed as close as possible to its source.

This new approach closes the loop on sanitation by recycle and reuse. Nutrients in the human excreta are recycled and reused for agriculture. It embraces multi-dimensional aspects. Featuring the manageable waste collection and treatment system at the source itself, it reduces the load of wastewater and cost of wastewater treatment. It controls surface and groundwater pollution and reduces water consumption otherwise wasted in flushing the fasces.

In this system, toilet is designed in such a way that urine and fasces is separated. As urine is almost sterile, it can be used as a fertilizer after short storage with necessary dilution in water and faces is stored for about six months to sanitize it since it contains many pathogens and microbes that are hazardous to health. The nutrient content in fasces matter is considerably lower than are hazardous to health. The nutrient content in fasces matter is considerably lower than that in urine, especially the amount of plant available nitrogen. The contribution from fasces matter is the content of phosphorus and potassium and increase in buffering capacity of the soil. The soil with low Ph affects the growth of plants. Normally, fasces are added with ash or lime in dry toilet that increases ph. increase in ph also accelerate destruction of pathogens, therefore, stored fasces of  more than 6 months with ph condition are safe to apply in soil in terms of hygienic quality.

It has been brought in practice in some areas of the valley installing a urine diversion dry toilet with a bucket collection system in the ground floor ot demonstrate its feasibility in the urban settings as a method of water optimization where this toilet saves about 1000 liters of water per month and resource recovery. The urine is collected in 50 liters bucket and fasces are stored in 80 liters plastic bin. Urine is diluted in 1:5 or 1:10 ratio and applied in the garden. Collection bucket of fasces is filled in four months and is stored for about 6 months before adding to soil as soil conditioner.

Hence, it is also one of the economical methods of waste water management. It can be effective if can be applied in the semi-urban areas of the valley through different promotional measures such as conducting training campaign etc.

2.3 (D) Waste water Treatment :

Raw sewage includes waterborne wastes from sinks, toilets, and industrial processes. Treatment of the sewage is required before it can be safely buried, used, or released back into the water systems. In a treatment plant, the waste is passed through a series of screens, chambers, and chemical processes to reduce its bulk and toxicity. The three general phases of treatment are primary, secondary, and tertiary. During primary treatment, a large percentage of the suspended solids and inorganic material is removed from the sewage. The focus of the secondary treatment is reducing organic material by accelerating natural biological processes. Tertiary treatment is necessary when the water will be reused; 99 percent of solids are removed and various chemical processes are used to ensure the water is as free from impurity as possible.

2.3(E) Grey Water Recycling :

In general, out of the total water consumption at household level, about 5% is used for drinking and cooking purposes, 52% for hygienic purposes like bathing, laundry and dishwashing and remaining 43% is used for toilet flushing, gardening and cleaning. Around 40% of the clean drinking water is used for non-drinking purposes where low quality water is sufficient. Therefore by treating grey water from bathing, laundry and kitchen, the water can be recycled for use for these purpose. It indicates that the excessive amount of clean drinking water is utilized for non drinking purposes which can be simply generated by treating grey water (waste water from bathing, laundry and kitchen). Grey water usually contains much less.

Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) and pathogens since grey is not contaminated  directly by human excrement. Therefore, it can be treated and refused that saves more than 40% of water. Eco-home produces about 160 liters/day or grey water and separate plumbing system has been fixed to separate grey water and black water. The grey water is collected in a two chambered setting tanks (500L) for sedimentation of larger particles. From here, water is collected into and underground tank of 200L. Even though the monthly water demand is about 9000L, it utilizes only 5400L of clean drinking water due to the installation of the grey water treatment unit and dry toilet. Treated grey water is being used for toilet flushing (Eco-home has one flush toilet), cleaning vehicles and gardening.

2.3 (F) Constructed wetland :

Environment management is a significant challenge is most of the developing countries mainly due to the lack of strong legislation to control waste water and institutional capacity for integrated planning and management. Constructed wetland (CW) has been effectively used in many countries for waste water treatment due to their low operational cost, low energy demand and operational simplicity in comparison with other conventional waste water treatment plants. It was first designed and used at Dhulikhel Hospital for treating the wastewater in 1997. It was built under design and technical supervision of Nepali and Austrian researches from University of Natural Resource and Applied Science (B OKU), Austria. Following the successful demonstration of this technology, CW's have been constructed in several other places. Now, there are together 12 CW's are in operation in Nepal. The treatment scale of CW ranges from single household to institutional level treating 40-50 m3 per day. As a non-government organization ENPHO has played significant role in the promotion and progressive environmental policies not  only providing design concept and technical assistance to build the CW technology but also taking active participation in the promotion of this technology to be built in several places.

The vertical subsurface flow bed of the constructed wetland is a rectangular bed (4.2m2) filed with 20 cm of gravel (20-40 mm) at the bottom, 10 cm of small gravel (10mm) in the middle and 60cm of coarse sand on the top. The bed is planted with Phragmites  Karka (Reed) and water is distributed 1-2 times a day through a 50mm diameter perforated pipe that is fixed above the surface level of the bed and connected to the feeding tank.

As the waste water flows through the bed it gets treated through natural processes by mechanical filtration, chemical transformation and biological consumption of potentials pollutants in the waste water stream. The plants grown in the wetland bed not only offer a root mass for filtration, but also provide oxygen and carbon for water treatment. Plants act like biological pumps, converting sunlight into chemical energy and carrying oxygen from their leaves to their roots. Pollutant digesting microbes colonize in the oxidized zone surrounding the root surface where it consumes of the available oxygen in the process of breaking down pollutants.

Hence, this natural treatment system will be considered as a proper alternative for treatment of municipal, industrial as well as agricultural waste water in developing countries due to their nutrient capturing capacity, simplicity, low energy demand and potential for creating bio-diversity.

CHAPTER - 3

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 Summary :

Nepal is the second richest country regarding the water resources which can be regarded as the natural asset of the country. We can generate the income form the maximum utilization of those water resources from various ways. But, it's our misfortune that due to the unsystematic development of the urban centers i.e. urbanization; we are facing different environmental problems along with the scarcity of drinking water. We are not able to utilize the water resources so that we are facing the problems relating to the water even the electricity many people are suffering from the water borne diseases due to the consumption of contaminated water in absence of pure water. Thus, it has been necessary to take the actions related to the sustainable water management.

3.2 Conclusions :

In Nepal supply of inadequate and poor water and disposal of untreated sewer into rivers are major issues of the urban centers. This is the burning problems for the people of the Kathmandu valley too. The people of the valley are facing different environment problems caused due to the scarcity of water for drinking and other purposes. Water borne disease are spreading easily and many people are dying as a result of this. Thus, it is the time for sustainable management of water resources that can be started from the individual level. Since the above discussed water management techniques are simple, economical and can be brought into operation individually as well as socially, we must try these technologies to get rid of the current problems. Even though the rainwater harvesting is the best options to solve the current water crisis, it is not a complete solution due to the rainfall pattern in the country. However, grey water recycling and adoption of  ecological sanitation together with rainwater harvesting can be a complete solution for the current water crisis. The major findings of the study can be pointed as follows.

Ø The supply of water is inadequate in compared to the total demand in the Kathmandu valley. Kathmandu valley needs 189 crore liters water per day. But only 49% of the required water is supplied in the dry season and about 70% is supplied in the  wet/rainy season.

Ø Shortage of drinking water and pollution of water bodies are the growing problems of the main urban centers including Kathmandu valley. With rapid urbanization in the developing world and increasing pressure in the city governments who often lack adequate financial as well as human resources, these problems are in an increasing trend.

Ø Groundwater is  depleting about 2.5 meters every year due to the over extractions. There is no sign of increase in water supply within a decade and nation has still not a concrete plan to clean rivers.

Ø Many people especially in the peri-urban communities are relying in traditional water sources like dug wells and stone spouts which are not safe drinking.

Ø It has been necessary that the citizens of Kathmandu adopt measures to optimize the use of current water supply system and conserve water to the extent possible and adopt to reduce pollution of the water sources.

Ø Among 84 spouts of Kathmandu valley were tested, 100% of samples have microbial contamination and 57% have nitrate content more than WHO guidelines value.

Ø About 91/1000 of the children under the age of 5 die due to the water borne diseases in Nepal.

Ø About 80% of all sickness and diseases in the world is caused by inadequate sanitation, polluted water or unavailability of water.

Ø Main reasons of river pollution are poor sewerage system, unhygienic wastage disposal thrown in the rivers, lack of water management before direct linking to the river etc.

Ø Rainwater can be a major source of drinking water in Kathmandu valley since it has more than 1600 mm of annual rainfall.

Ø Many residents of Kathmandu connect their sewerage lines directly to manholes (storm sewers) and the rainwater carries this sewerage generated in the Kathmandu valley being flushed into the rivers of the valley.

Ø SODIS can be the best water treatment technology for drinking water due to its effectiveness, simplicity and low cost to be incurred.

Ø SODIS is gaining worldwide significance in areas where people do not have access to safe drinking water.

Ø Human excreta as a resource, not a waste.

Ø Water is a precious resources that should not be used to transport the excreta.

Ø Excreta should be managed as close as possible to its source.

Ø The excessive amount of clean drinking water is utilized for non drinking purposes which can be simply generated by treating grey water (waste water from bathing, laundry and kitchen)

Ø Grey water usually contains much less nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) and pathogens since grey water is not contaminated directly by human excrement.

Ø Under the constructed wetland system, as the wastewater flows through the bed it gets treated through natural processes by mechanical filtration, chemical transformation and biological consumption of potential pollutants in the wastewater stream. Hence, this natural treatment system will be considered as a proper alternative for treatment of municipal, industrial as well as agricultural waste water in developing countries due to their nutrient capturing capacity, simplicity, low energy demand and potential for creating bio-diversity.

3.3 Recommendations :

Ø Based on the findings of the study, following recommendations are proposed:

Ø Awareness building and motivational programs regarding wastewater management knowledge on rational use of water resources on the individuals.

Ø SODIS technology should be used for purification of water for drinking purposes.

Ø Government should promote and motivate the use of economical and effective rainwater harvesting and SODIS technology.

Ø Ecological sanitation should be used especially in the peri-urban areas of that the recycled human excreta can be easily used for agriculture purpose.

Ø Government should build the Constructed Wetland in the large government offices as well as in the hospitals and industries where huge amount of chemical mixed water is produced.

Ø Water management technologies should be promoted through the advertisement in the electronic media.

Ø Prevention measures should be taken in order to control rapid unplanned urbanization since it is one of the main reasons of draining out of traditional water resources such as stone spouts, wells and ponds within the Kathmandu valley.

Ø Sewarage lines should not be directly linked to the river. They should be treated before linking to the rivers.

Ø The scarcity of water problem in Kathmandu valley is also due to the over population. So, the population should be wisely distributed.

Ø Water should be used only after treatment for drinking purposes.

Ø Household waste and other wastage should not be thrown in the rivers.

REFERENCE

Ø NGO FORUM

Ø Nepal Water Supply Corporation Annual  Report

Ø WHO Guidelines

Ø www.sodis.ch

Ø www.enpho.org

Ø Different Magazines and Newspapers